If Darwin showed how a historical critique could revolutionize our understanding of biological concepts, then Nietzsche showed how far-reaching such a critique could be in our understanding of knowledge generally. The transformation in ethics that comes from abandoning ahistorical notions of "good" and "truth" leads both to an appreciation of perspectivism, and to the thought that the signification of terms like "good" and "truth" may be no more fixed and stable than the meaning of terms like "species" and "fitness".
If this is so, however, what are writings about morals really about? If people debate the merits of different moral positions, informed by different perspectives, on what basis should the success of such debate be evaluated? If there is no hope of resolving disagreements by appeal to agreed upon notions of "common good," then what is there for moral philosophers to spend their time doing (besides polishing their rhetorical skills)? Finally, what is the difference between studying "information and computer ethics" and "the habits of highly successful people", if we have nothing on which to base the claims of the former other than the evidence of the latter?
In the last assigned chapter of BGE, "What is Nobel?", Nietzsche discusses laughter and, along with his earlier discussion of masks, it should make us question what we think Nietzsche is saying and why we have such difficulty finding an entirely consistent reading of Beyond Good and Evil. For example, when Nietzsche discusses "master moralities" and "slave moralities", is he recommending either of them? Kaufmann suggests not in a footnote (to section 260), and later, in the long footnote to the section on laughter (294) Kaufmann suggests an interpretation of Nietzsche's view which casts an interesting light on all of the chapters in BGE. Does Kaufmann think we can read anything prescriptive in the book? Do you?
Interestingly enough, Darwin also wrote about laughter, in his book The expression of the emotions in man and animals (London, John Murray, 1872). In Chapter 8 of that book, "Joy, High Spirits, Love, Tender Feelings, Devotion," Darwin begins with an analysis of laughter, and writes:
Many curious discussions have been written on the causes of laughter with grown-up persons. The subject is extremely complex. Something incongruous or unaccountable, exciting surprise and some sense of superiority in the laugher, who must be in a happy frame of mind, seems to be the commonest cause. The circumstances must not be of a momentous nature: no poor man would laugh or smile on suddenly hearing that a large fortune had been bequeathed to him. If the mind is strongly excited by pleasurable feelings, and any little unexpected event or thought occurs, then, as Mr. Herbert Spencer remarks, "a large amount of nervous energy, instead of being allowed to expend itself in producing an equivalent amount of the new thoughts and emotion which were nascent, is suddenly checked in its flow." . . . "The excess must discharge itself in some other direction, and there results an efflux through the motor nerves to various classes of the muscles, producing the half-convulsive actions we term laughter." (from Darwin 1872, p. 200)
In what ways is Nietzsche's comment on laughter consistent with Darwin's analysis, and in what ways should it be distinguished? What does Nietzsche mean when he talks about ranking philosophers based on the "rank of the their laughter" (section 294)? Should this influence our reading of Nietzsche's philosophical work?
Beyond Good and Evil, parts 5,6,7 and 9
As we move through these chapters, let's pay special attention to where we think Nietzsche wants us to see him laughing. We'll also try to identify those views which foreshadow certain postmodern conceptions of knowledge and power.
Next Time(s): On Wednesday there will be a strictly optional class, during which we can discuss Nietzsche, Spinello, or review all the assigned texts in preparation for the final (depending on who shows up). On Friday, the final exam will be made available in the late afternoon, and will be due by noon on Saturday.